The Greenhouse Frog | Josh Ellenbogen
What are Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAs) and How are They Impacting People Through Our Water Systems?
by: Sylvia Kniss
Introduction: What are PFAs?
The term PFAs, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, is being heard progressively more in recent years as this issue comes to the forefront of environmental problems. These substances are organic molecules consisting of long carbon chains with at least one carbon-fluorine bond. They are more commonly known as “forever chemicals” because they do not break down (asdwa, 2021). PFAs can also bioaccumulate through organisms and the food chain. They are categorized as general contaminants of emerging concern, meaning that few EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, regulations have been put out to help curb this issue (EPA, n.d.a.). Research about PFAs is in progress, so not much is currently known about these contaminants.
PFAs are manmade chemicals that have been used and manufactured since the 1940s due to their resistant and non-stick qualities (asdwa, 2021). They can be found in both consumer and industrial products, like food packaging such as candy wrappers, pizza boxes, grease-resistant products, and popcorn bags. They can be found in non-stick pans, paint, and some personal hygiene products. Technology and essentials are also a source of PFAs as they are found in chrome plating, electronics, paper, and textiles. Industrial uses consist primarily of firefighting foam. Drinking, eating, or touching these products can cause exposure, and many of these products can pollute local water sources. However, it is unlikely that PFAs can be absorbed through the skin simply from using contaminated water to shower or wash dishes (EPA, n.d.a.).
Where do They Get into the Water?
PFAs can make their way into our water systems through a variety of sources. Disposal sites, such as landfills, are a significant source due to the concentration of products that contain PFAs (EPA, n.d.a.). As precipitation filters through the waste it becomes contaminated with PFAs. Leachate is generally collected and treated by waste management facilities after it has made its way through the trash. However, methods to treat and remove PFAs from water have only been created in recent years. Therefore, PFAs remain in the treated leachate and are then released into the environment, meaning that PFAs have been contaminating water via this method since they first started to be manufactured.
Another way that forever chemicals contaminate water systems is through firefighting foam, which is used during car accidents or other emergencies. The foam, while necessary in these events, is being released into the environment. If not cleaned up properly, the PFAs may make their way into stream systems during precipitation events. Additionally, PFAs may come in contact with water via biosolids, which are created at wastewater treatment plants from the solid waste. They are compacted and sold to farmers to be used as fertilizer (EPA, n.d.a.). PFAs are in human waste because individuals eat food and use items that contain them. When the waste is processed, these PFAs stay in that waste because they do not break down. When the biosolids are spread on fields and precipitation occurs, they are carried to surface water systems by runoff. They also can percolate down through the soil to the groundwater when exposed to rain. This can create a vicious cycle as animals, like fish and livestock, are exposed to the PFAs in their habitats. Then, when humans eat them, the PFAs re-enter our systems (EPA, n.d.a.), starting the process again.
Building exteriors can cause contamination as well, due to PFAs being common in paints and sealants (EPA, n.d.a.). The heat, water, and stain resistant properties of PFAs make them well-suited for these products, but that does mean they are exposed to the elements (asdwa, 2021). Rain washes them off the sides of buildings where they runoff into streams, or percolate into the groundwater. The industrial use of water to cool or wash products also creates a possibility for PFAs to be released at the plants where they manufacture them (EPA, n.d.a.). If they release that water back into river or stream systems, the PFAs will contaminate them. Overall, forever chemicals have a plethora of ways to get into our water systems, including precipitation, percolation, and runoff. As they contaminate the groundwater, rivers, streams, and lakes, they also contaminate our drinking water.
Surface Water
PFAs appear in surface water systems around the world. In Europe, the United States, China, and Australia the concentrations of PFAs are very high. Some of these countries, like Australia, do not have any manufacturing plants that make PFAs, yet concentrations are still being found. This is often attributed to the use of firefighting foam that contains PFAs (Ackerman Grunfeld et. al., 2024). In Pennsylvania, the statistics for PFAs are also high. According to a United States Geological Survey (USGS) study, at least one PFAs was found in 76% of the 161 sampled streams. Only 33 PFAs were targeted and tested by this study, along with general water chemistry parameters. The PFAs themselves were then extracted by an external lab in Canada (Breitmeyer et. al., 2023). The concentrations found are generally at or around the maximum contaminant levels being implemented by the EPA, which are 4 ng/L (EPA, n.d.b.). In the US as a whole, PFAs are being found in soil, sediment, and fish. Fish are generally where the bioaccumulation comes in as we, and many organisms, consume fish.
Groundwater & Drinking Water
Most of the US and the world rely on groundwater for drinking purposes, but unfortunately, over 20% of the US population relies on groundwater contaminated by PFAs, according to a USGS study. This estimates that about 71-95 million people are consuming PFAs from water that is supposed to be safe. This study also only accounts for 24 PFAs, while over 12,000 types exist, suggesting that if all PFAs were considered in the USGS models, these statistics would be even more worrisome. Certain states are feeling the brunt of this issue, depending on whether they rely on public or private wells. For example, in Massachusetts, around 86-98% of the population that uses public wells has PFAs contaminated water. In the District of Columbia, around 76-95% of the population that uses private wells drinks PFAs contaminated water (Tokranov et. al., 2024).
Human Health Concerns
The previous statistics make it clear that forever chemicals are thoroughly integrated into vital parts of our lives, like drinking water. The severity of the PFAs issue is demonstrated by the risks they pose to human health. For example, some PFAs are carcinogenic and cause increased risks for prostate, kidney, and testicular cancer. They also can cause an increased risk for high cholesterol levels and obesity. They have effects on the immune system, and make it more difficult for the body to fight off infections. PFAs can cause developmental risks in children, such as low birth weight, behavioral changes, accelerated puberty, and bone variation. Pregnant people may have added concern for high blood pressure, and PFAs may pose a risk to fertility. Most concerningly, PFAs do not require high concentrations to cause negative effects. They can be detrimental in both low and high concentrations (EPA, n.d.a.).
Current Solutions
EPA research has found three possible treatments for drinking water contaminated by PFAs. The first solution is adding granular activated carbon to the water, which has an 89-98% efficiency rate for the removal of PFAs. The second is ion exchange resins, which have a 90-99% removal rate for PFAs. The third method is using high-pressure membrane systems, which work similar to osmosis and have a 93-99% removal rate of PFAs. The EPA does not elaborate on the methods or mechanics of the processes, but they are working on addressing and understanding the cost of these techniques (Speth, 2020). Some small businesses, such as Enspired Solutions, are working on the PFAs issue as well. Enspired Solutions is a women-owned environmental remediation company that has received funding from organizations, like The NIEHS Superfund Research Program, to work on this problem. This organization is working on creating technology that breaks the carbon-fluorine bond in these molecules, which are likely to create environmentally safe byproducts (Broadfoot, 2024).
Despite the recent nature of this issue, the government has taken action to regulate the emerging contaminants. Most of the actions fit under three categories: hazardous substance classifications, regulations and clean water standards, and use and release reporting. They are creating specific criteria to protect both humans and aquatic life. For example, in April of 2024, the EPA issued the first national drinking water standard in regard to PFAs and other forever chemicals. The EPA is also researching how to remove them from the environment, as discussed earlier. PFAs are beginning to be officially classified as hazardous substances, and the EPA is now requiring that all US manufactures of PFAs report their use as well as any release of PFAs contaminated waste. While PFAs are a prominent detriment to human health, the EPA is making progress on mitigating the issue (EPA, 2024).
Conclusion: A Local Example Through the Chesapeake Conservancy
The issue of emerging contaminants may seem like too broad of an issue for it to affect individuals, however, the Chesapeake Conservancy (CC) in Annapolis, Maryland is seeing trends in local data that may indicate the presence of PFAs in our local waterways. For each catchment that the CC works on, they track Index of Biological Integrity (IBI) scores and have specific goals for both upslope area best management practices and riparian area. When comparing these two data values, there are strange trends between the water quality and the goal completion. In some cases, such as those in Lancaster, PA, the water quality is getting worse over time, but both riparian goals are almost 100% completed. This trend has appeared in multiple catchment data values and generates the question: if agriculture impairment is not the issue that needs to be fixed in these streams, then what is? The CC is currently brainstorming the possibility that PFAs and microplastics are causing these issues. Industry within that catchment is being looked at to see if there are any specific commonalities. The Conservancy is also consulting with other organizations, such as Stroud Water Research Center, to better understand how to combat this issue in local waterways. In conclusion, PFAs contamination is a ubiquitous issue that is affecting us all, both locally and globally. The understanding and mitigation of the PFAs issue is essential to preserve human health and environmental health. As research continues and more information is gathered about this topic, the work of the Chesapeake Conservancy–and other similar organizations–will become even more important to both us, and our water systems.
References
Ackerman Grunfeld, D., Gilbert, D., Hou, J., Jones, A. M., Lee, M. J., Kibbey, T. C. G., & O’Carroll, D. M. (2024). Underestimated burden of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in global surface waters and groundwaters. Nature Geoscience, 17(4), 340. doi:10.1038/s41561-024-01402-8.
asdwa. (2021). Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAs). Retrieved from https://www.asdwa.org/pfas/.
Breitmeyer, S. E., Williams, A. M., Duris, J. W., Eicholtz, L. W., Shull, D. R., Wertz, T. A., & Woodward, E. E. (2023). Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) in Pennsylvania surface waters: A statewide assessment, associated sources, and land-use relations. Science of the Total Environment, 888, 164161. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164161.
Broadfoot, M. (2024). Water treatment technology aims to destroy PFAS on-site. Retrieved from https://factor.niehs.nih.gov/2024/11/feature/1-feature-pfas.
EPA. (n.d.a). Final PFAS national primary drinking water regulation.
EPA. (n.d.b). PFAS explained: Scientific studies have shown that exposure to some PFAS in the environment is linked to harmful health effects in humans and animals..
EPA. (2024). Key EPA actions to address PFAS. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/pfas/key-epa-actions-address-pfas.
Speth, T. (2020). Session 3: PFAS treatment in drinking water and wastewater –state of the science. EPA.
Tokranov, A. K., Ransom, K. M., Bexfield, L., M., Lindsey, B. D., Watson, E., Dupuy, D. I., Bradley, P. M. (2024). Predictions of groundwater PFAS occurrence at drinking water supply depths in the United States. Science, 386(6723), 748–755. doi:10.1126/science.ado6638.